Non Terrestrial Network (NTN
Tutorial: LEO Satellite Internet connectivity, D2D, and major providers
Satellite Orbits:
Satellite connectivity operates across three orbital tiers:
- Geostationary (GEO) satellites have been the dominant platform for decades, powering telecommunications, TV broadcasting, weather forecasting, military surveillance, rural internet, and satellite phones. Positioned 36,000 kilometres above the equator, a single GEO satellite covers nearly a third of the planet, but the distance creates a 500–700 millisecond signal delay that makes video calls and real-time services impractical. Each satellite is roughly the size of a school bus and requires its own rocket launch.
- Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites sit between 2,000 and 36,000 kilometres above Earth’s surface, with a latency of 70–120 milliseconds. The satellites range from car-sized to van-sized, with a few deployable per launch. MEO satellites are used for GPS and other global navigation systems but have never played a significant role in consumer connectivity.
- Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites sit at just 300 to 2,000 kilometres above Earth’s surface, bringing latency down to 20–50 milliseconds — on par with home broadband. Their small, flat-panel design, roughly the size of a dining table, allows dozens to be stacked into a single rocket, significantly lowering the cost per satellite. Modern LEO constellations also link satellites directly via laser, forming a mesh network in space. Instead of every signal bouncing through a fixed ground gateway, data travels between satellites and descends at the nearest point, allowing LEO signals to reach oceans, disaster zones, and remote communities that no ground infrastructure will ever serve.
LEO satellites sit between 300 and 2,000 kilometres above Earth, completing an orbit every 90 to 120 minutes and covering different parts of the globe as they move. They communicate with ground stations or through inter-satellite links that relay data between satellites. Supporting infrastructure includes gateway stations, network operation centers, and data centers that manage satellite movements, route traffic, and maintain service reliability. For users, accessing LEO services requires a small satellite terminal — typically a dish — with power and a subscription plan. As shown in the figure below, users connect to a local Wi-Fi network linked to the dish. Data is transmitted to LEO satellites, relayed to a ground station, and then routed through fiber-optic networks to data centers or cloud platforms. The process is reversed for the return signal, completing the connection in milliseconds.
Importantly, LEO satellites are revolutionizing Direct-to-Device (D2D) communications by acting as cell towers in space, allowing standard, unmodified smartphones and IoT sensors to connect seamlessly without terrestrial infrastructure. By utilizing standard mobile-carrier spectrums or dedicated satellite bands, these fast-moving satellites bypass localized coverage gaps to provide ubiquitous, text, voice, and data services in remote, rural, and maritime areas, as well as critical backup during disasters.
LEO satellite internet functional block diagram:
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Regulatory approval is central to LEO satellite deployment. Providers must typically obtain spectrum licenses, comply with national rules for ground infrastructure, and secure approval for service provision. Requirements vary widely across jurisdictions — from registration to multi-stage authorization processes. Competition from incumbent internet service providers may constrain market entry and expansion. As a result, services may be restricted or delayed even where technical coverage exists.
LEO connectivity also has practical limitations. Terminals require an unobstructed view of the sky, making installation easier in open areas but more difficult in dense urban environments where buildings or trees block the signal. Tropical downpours, heavy rain, or storms can cause signal attenuation and reduce throughput. Compared with terrestrial systems such as fibre-optic or mobile networks, LEO services may deliver less consistent performance, particularly in urban areas, and speeds can drop during peak demand.
Providers of LEO satellite connectivity:
The global space economy is projected to reach US$1.8 trillion by 2035, driven largely by LEO constellations. However, value creation is likely to be concentrated among a small number of providers controlling key parts of the value chain, Financial barriers to entry remain significant, varying depending on mission scope and technical ambition. Amazon Leo (formerly Project Kuiper) will cost more than US$10 billion, while full deployment of SpaceX’s Starlink is estimated at US $20–30 billion.
A mix of private and state-backed operators is developing LEO constellations with different strategies in satellite numbers, coverage, and target markets. Chinese-backed LEO operators GuoWang and Qianfan represent a strategic shift, both advancing rapidly towards full operation with a dual mandate of serving domestic communications and extending broadband connectivity across the Indo-Pacific and beyond. Their emergence could reshape strategic choices for governments in the region.
Where LEO satellite delivers:
LEO satellites are not a universal solution to connectivity gaps, nor a replacement for terrestrial networks. In most countries, fibre-optic and mobile infrastructure will remain the primary source of broadband connectivity. Their value lies in specific contexts: serving remote communities beyond the economic reach of terrestrial investment; providing resilient backup when ground networks fail; and supporting connectivity where no viable alternative exists.
LEO satellites are increasingly used to enhance resilience in countries with extensive fiber-optic networks or high exposure to natural disasters. They can provide automatic failover — near instantaneous transition to a standby system — during submarine cable outages, power failures, or other disruptions, maintaining communications and supporting emergency response. In December 2024, earthquakes in Vanuatu disrupted contact with national disaster authorities until Starlink was activated. In April 2025, a blackout in Spain and Portugal cut power to thousands of mobile towers, halving terrestrial network capacity — Starlink maintained connectivity via ground stations in Italy.
The main advantage is network independence: LEO satellites operate separately from terrestrial infrastructure and continue functioning when ground systems fail. Integrating LEO satellites into national disaster frameworks, rather than relying on ad hoc deployment, would maximize resilience.
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References:
https://www.telecoms.com/satellite/satellite-disruption-how-leo-and-d2d-are-impacting-telecoms
Analyst firms wide forecasts for the LEO satellite direct-to-device (D2D) market
Analysis: SpaceX FCC filing to launch up to 1M LEO satellites for solar powered AI data centers in space
Blue Origin announces TeraWave – satellite internet rival for Starlink and Amazon Leo
Open Cosmos introduces global space-based LEO satellite service for IoT monitoring
China ITU filing to put ~200K satellites in low earth orbit while FCC authorizes 7.5K additional Starlink LEO satellites
Amazon Leo (formerly Project Kuiper) unveils satellite broadband for enterprises; Competitive analysis with Starlink
GEO satellite internet from HughesNet and Viasat can’t compete with LEO Starlink in speed or latency
Ookla on the Global D2D Market
Direct-to-device (D2D) satellite connectivity is emerging as a practical extension of non-terrestrial networks (NTNs), enabling standard smartphones to communicate directly with satellite systems without specialized user equipment. Within the 3GPP ecosystem, NTN capabilities were standardized (3GPP specs become standards by being rubber stamped by ETSI and ITU-R) beginning with 3GPP Release 17, establishing a framework for satellite-terrestrial interoperability and expanding the potential reach of mobile broadband beyond the footprint of terrestrial radio access networks.
D2D services could reduce persistent coverage gaps, especially in rural, maritime, and other underserved environments where terrestrial deployment is constrained by economics or geography. However, commercially available services today remain limited, with most deployments focused on messaging and other low-throughput applications rather than full mobile broadband.
From a market perspective, D2D and NTN have broad implications for mobile network operators (MNOs), satellite operators, equipment vendors, and regulators. That strategic importance helps explain why companies such as Apple, Amazon, SpaceX, and AST SpaceMobile are investing in this segment, alongside broader ecosystem activity around 3GPP-based NTN architectures.
Image Credit: Ookla
Ookla® has contributed to the discussion with a high-resolution poster showing global Speedtest® usage data for D2D services, along with a detailed market study on the D2D landscape. The analysis is based on Android devices that register with D2D-capable satellite systems from Starlink, Skylo, and Lynk, providing an early empirical view of how NTN-based connectivity is being used in practice.
Looking ahead, continued investment in larger satellite constellations and additional spectrum holdings should improve D2D capacity, coverage, and service robustness. As the technology matures, the industry is likely to move from narrowband messaging toward richer data services, with 3GPP NTN providing the standardization path for broader ecosystem scale-up.
For mobile network operators, the long-term effect could be a rebalancing of investment priorities at the edge of network coverage, particularly in sparsely populated regions. That may reduce the incentive for some rural tower builds and alter the demand outlook for parts of the RAN infrastructure supply chain.
Looking ahead, continued investment in next-generation satellite constellations, coupled with expanded spectrum access, is expected to enhance D2D performance and capacity. Key players—including Starlink, AST SpaceMobile, and Amazon’s Project Kuiper—are targeting higher data rates and broader service capabilities, with the objective of extending beyond narrowband messaging to support more data-intensive applications.
For MNOs, the evolution of D2D introduces potential shifts in network planning and capital allocation, particularly at the margins of coverage. Satellite-based augmentation could reduce the economic rationale for terrestrial infrastructure deployment in sparsely populated areas, with downstream implications for tower companies and certain segments of the radio access network (RAN) supply chain.
From a policy perspective, D2D also has the potential to reshape universal service frameworks and coverage obligations. Regulators seeking to expand connectivity may increasingly incorporate NTN-based solutions into their policy toolkits, prompting a reassessment of long-standing assumptions regarding the role of terrestrial infrastructure in achieving nationwide coverage. In that sense, D2D is not just a satellite story. It is becoming a broader telecom architecture shaped by 3GPP specifications and the convergence of terrestrial and non-terrestrial mobile networks.
References:
Analyst firms wide forecasts for the LEO satellite direct-to-device (D2D) market
Ookla: D2D satellite connectivity surged 24.5% during last 9 months; Starlink’s footprint expansion leads the way
Ookla: Starlink a viable competitor for hybrid 5G/NTN services due to network performance improvements and larger coverage area
GSA: 5G Non Terrestrial Networks, 5G SA and 5G Advanced gain momentum
Analysis: Amazon <- Globalstar – a strategic move for D2D and spectrum parity
Direct-to-Device (D2D) satellite network comparison: Starlink V2 (Starlink Mobile) vs “Satellite Connect Europe”
Deutsche Telekom selects Iridium for NB-IoT direct-to-device (D2D) connectivity
Standards are the key requirement for telco/satellite integration: D2D and satellite-based mobile backhaul
MTN Consulting: Satellite network operators to focus on Direct-to-device (D2D), Internet of Things (IoT), and cloud-based services
Analyst firms wide forecasts for the LEO satellite direct-to-device (D2D) market
LEO satellite direct-to-device (D2D) technology looks promising. Telecom analyst firms see D2D as a fast-growing but still early-stage market, with forecasts ranging from roughly 22% to 49% revenue CAGR depending on scope and whether they are measuring total D2D services or smartphone satellite D2D specifically. But that’s not happening now. T-Mobile chief Srini Gopalan, who said the service so far had generated “a lot less usage” than anticipated.
The most common near-term view is that basic D2D will add modest operator revenue at first, but the long-term market could become multi-billion-dollar as broadband and richer services mature. Here are a few analyst forecasts:
- MarketsandMarkets projects the D2D market to rise from USD 0.57 billion in 2025 to USD 2.64 billion by 2030, a 35.6% CAGR.
- Mordor Intelligence projects the direct-to-device satellite connectivity market from USD 4.08 billion in 2025 to USD 13.80 billion by 2031, a 22.37% CAGR.
- Omdia forecasts smartphone satellite D2D revenue to reach USD 11.99 billion by 2030, with a 49.4% revenue CAGR from 2026 to 2030.
- Counterpoint Research expects 46% of all smartphones shipped by 2030 to be D2D-capable. That implies D2D is moving from a niche satellite feature toward a mainstream handset capability, driven by chipset integration and broader device support.
- Juniper Research thinks the number of monthly active users will top 150 million by 2031. The analyst firm suggests a temporary access model, similar to roaming or travel eSIMs, where consumers purchase access in a particular area for a set period. Juniper thinks connectivity alone won’t be enough to attract consumers. It believes operators will have to bundle the satellite service into rewards programs or roaming access.
- Analysys Mason expects operators launching D2D in 2026 to see about a 1% annual revenue uplift from basic services alone, with much larger upside once broadband D2D becomes available.
- TelecomTV reports a similar view from Analyst Brad Grivner, who says D2D could give MNOs around a 1% annual revenue uplift and also improve retention and upsell opportunities.
The spread in forecasts mostly reflects different definitions of the market, different start dates, and whether the analyst counts only current narrowband services or also future broadband D2D. In practical terms, the consensus is that D2D will start as a coverage and messaging feature, then evolve into a broader connectivity platform as device support and satellite capacity scale.
Analysts consistently point to 3GPP NTN standardization (rubber stamped by ETSI and ITU-R), more satellite-ready smartphones, and large-scale LEO deployments as the main catalysts. They also emphasize emergency messaging, rural coverage, IoT, industrial connectivity, and enterprise resilience as the first meaningful demand pools. D2D market growth is being driven by a mix of coverage gaps, new device support, and expanding enterprise use cases. The strongest themes across analyst and industry reports are universal connectivity, IoT demand, LEO satellite buildout, and 3GPP NTN standardization.
Image Credit: Digital Regulation Platform
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Main D2D growth drivers:
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Coverage expansion. Analysts say D2D is filling a major gap in rural, remote, maritime, and disaster-prone areas where terrestrial networks are weak or unavailable.
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3GPP NTN standards. Standardized non-terrestrial networking is making satellite connectivity more practical for mainstream devices and accelerating ecosystem adoption.
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LEO constellation growth. More low-Earth-orbit satellites, along with falling launch costs and better satellite economics, are increasing capacity and improving latency.
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Smartphone integration. As more phones become satellite-capable, D2D can move beyond niche emergency features into broader consumer usage.
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Enterprise IoT demand. Logistics, mining, agriculture, utilities, and energy firms want reliable connectivity for remote assets, monitoring, and worker safety.
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Disaster resilience. Climate-related outages and emergency-response needs are pushing governments and operators toward backup connectivity solutions.
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Carrier-satellite partnerships. Cooperation between MNOs and satellite operators is speeding commercialization and helping services reach scale.
The D2Dmarket is still starting with messaging, emergency connectivity, and narrowband IoT, but analysts expect growth to broaden as device support and satellite capacity improve. In short, D2D grows fastest where it solves a clear pain point: no coverage, weak resilience, or expensive remote connectivity.
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References:
https://www.lightreading.com/satellite/making-the-most-of-satellite-d2d
Ookla: D2D satellite connectivity surged 24.5% during last 9 months; Starlink’s footprint expansion leads the way
Ookla: Starlink a viable competitor for hybrid 5G/NTN services due to network performance improvements and larger coverage area
GSA: 5G Non Terrestrial Networks, 5G SA and 5G Advanced gain momentum
Analysis: Amazon <- Globalstar – a strategic move for D2D and spectrum parity
Direct-to-Device (D2D) satellite network comparison: Starlink V2 (Starlink Mobile) vs “Satellite Connect Europe”
Deutsche Telekom selects Iridium for NB-IoT direct-to-device (D2D) connectivity
Standards are the key requirement for telco/satellite integration: D2D and satellite-based mobile backhaul
MTN Consulting: Satellite network operators to focus on Direct-to-device (D2D), Internet of Things (IoT), and cloud-based services
GSA: 5G Non Terrestrial Networks, 5G SA and 5G Advanced gain momentum
5G NTNs:
During an April 16th webinar titled “GSA Snapshot: 5G networks, spectrum & devices,” Joe Gardiner, market analyst at CCS Insight and a member of the GSA research team, said GSA data through March 31st reveal that 97 operators in 70 countries have announced they are investing in LEO satellite D2D technology.
“There’s a lot of interest in this area, but there’s also a lot of interest and movement towards 3GPP standards (see Note below), and the convergence of the terrestrial and the non-terrestrial standards map” starting with 3GPP Release 17, Gardiner observed.
Skylo, for example, is following a standards-based approach and already has D2D partnerships with operators such as Orange in France, Verizon and Vodafone IoT.
“Other players are [also] looking to use the standards-based approach, and looking to purchase the spectrum that’s compatible with the standards,” Gardiner said.
Note that 3GPP is not a SDO- it depends on ETSI and ITU-R to rubber stamp its specs and transpose them into official standards.
Image credit: GSA
He said that “Part of the reason Amazon is acquiring satellite Globalstar, was because of the spectrum assets that Globalstar has.” Gardiner added that a “lot of trials are taking place that are looking at the next stage of the standards, Release 18 with 5G NR NTN services.”
Gardiner referenced the trial announced by the European Space Agency (ESA), together with Airbus Defence and Space, Eutelsat OneWeb, and industry partners in November 2025.
In addition, Spain’s Sateliot is following the standards-based approach and has launched a Series C financing round to raise €100 million (US$117 million) to help fund the deployment its IoT-focused 5G satellite constellation. “We expect more trials like this to take place over the next few months and years,” Gardiner said. There is a “movement towards using mobile satellite services (MSS) spectrum,” although the drawback with this spectrum is the current lack of compatible mobile devices on the market.
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5G SA and 5G Advanced:
Ian Fogg, a research director at CCS Insight, who also works within the research team at the GSA, talked up the move towards 5G standalone (SA) and 5G Advanced networks.
“Globally, we have 184 operators in 74 countries investing in 5G standalone. This is publicly. 28.5% of all 5G networks are now 5G standalone. So there’s real momentum happening here,” Fogg said.
Source: GSA
5G Advanced “is something that’s happening at the moment. We have 36 operators globally publicly saying they’re investing in 5G Advanced. We’ve seen eleven 5G Advanced networks commercially launched,” Fogg said, citing activity in China, Canada, Japan, Kuwait and Vietnam.
“I think what will happen in the next few years is we’ll see the gap between an operator adopting 5G standalone and 5G Advanced narrowing, because if you go to 5G standalone, it’s a natural thing to move fairly quickly on to 5G Advanced, if possible, because you get a lot more capabilities once you’re on a 5G advanced network,” he added.
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References:
https://gsacom.com/webinar/5g-networks-spectrum-devices/
Orange set to claim European satellite first
Skylo’s trajectory toward the ‘standardized sky’ looks to include multiple orbits
MWC2026: Skylo makes universal connectivity a reality; Vodafone IoT teams with Skylo for satellite connectivity
Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTNs): market, specifications & standards in 3GPP and ITU-R
ITU-R recommendation IMT-2020-SAT.SPECS from ITU-R WP 5B to be based on 3GPP 5G NR-NTN and IoT-NTN (from Release 17 & 18)
Analysis: Amazon <- Globalstar – a strategic move for D2D and spectrum parity
Enterprise IoT and the Transformation of UK Telecom Business Models – Part 1
From LPWAN to Hybrid Networks: Satellite and NTN as Enablers of Enterprise IoT – Part 2
Keysight Technologies Demonstrates 3GPP Rel-19 NR-NTN Connectivity in Band n252
Telecoms.com’s survey: 5G NTNs to highlight service reliability and network redundancy
Dell’Oro: Mobile Core Networks +15% in 2025; Ookla: Global Reality Check on 5G SA and 5G Advanced in 2026
Dell’Oro: RAN Market Stabilized in 2025 with 1% CAG forecast over next 5 years; Opinion on AI RAN, 5G Advanced, 6G RAN/Core risks
Dell’Oro: RAN market stable, Mobile Core Network market +14% Y/Y with 72 5G SA core networks deployed
AT&T deploys nationwide 5G SA while Verizon lags and T-Mobile leads
Direct-to-Device (D2D) satellite network comparison: Starlink V2 (Starlink Mobile) vs “Satellite Connect Europe”
Executive Summary:
1. Starlink is preparing a new Direct-to-Device (D2D) constellation to provide satellite fill-in services and has renamed their V2 D2D services as Starlink Mobile. This rebrand coincides with the introduction of their next-generation V2 satellites, which aim to provide 5G-like broadband speeds (up to 150 Mbit/s) directly to unmodified smartphones. With 650 direct-to-cell Starlink satellites active, part of a constellation of almost 10,000 Starlink satellites of various kinds, that roaming service now offers connectivity to 32 countries across six continents. Today, Starlink V1 D2D has 10 million active users a month – and the company expects to top 25 million by the end of 2026.
Where Starlink V1 delivers text and what Nicolls described as “light data,” meaning only for selected apps, Starlink V2 (Starlink Mobile) will deliver what was called “terrestrial-like connectivity.” In good conditions, “it should look and feel like you’re connected to a high-performing 5G terrestrial network.” To make that happen, V2 will need both new frequencies – the same globally-licensed S-band Starlink will use for emergency alerts – and new, much larger satellites.
Image Credit: ZUMA Press Inc/Alamy Stock Photo
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2. European operators have launched “Satellite Connect Europe“ to offer wholesale D2D services to mobile carriers. Satellite Connect Europe is actually a joint venture between AST SpaceMobile and Vodafone. It will primarily use satellites provided by AST SpaceMobile to offer direct-to-device (D2D) services in Europe. The venture is building a dedicated, sovereign European constellation, with plans to establish an operations center in Germany.
Five major mobile network operator groups will deploy D2D satellite mobile broadband services across Europe. The agreements cover CK Hutchison, Orange, Sunrise, Telefonica and Vodafone, with customer trials scheduled to start this summer (2026). The service is expected to launch around the end of 2026, with demonstrations planned in Romania before then.
Role of 3GPP NTN specifications:
Both of these initiatives are dependent on 3GPP-based non‑terrestrial networking (NTN) specs, introduced primarily in Release 17 and enhanced in Release 18 to enable direct satellite-to-device connectivity using 5G NR (new radio) and IoT (NB-IoT/eMTC) protocols. 3GPP detailed NTN specs include TR 38.821 (architecture), TS 38.101-5 (user equipment radio performance), and TS 38.104 (base station requirements), supporting LEO/GEO orbits and S/Ka-band spectrum.
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3GPP Release 17 introduced NR‑NTN and IoT‑NTN profiles, defining waveform adaptations, timing and Doppler compensation, mobility procedures, and MSS band mappings so that satellite and terrestrial RANs interoperate under a single 5G system architecture. These NTN specs will be submitted to ITU-R WP 4B for rubber stamping as ITU-R recommendations (official standards).
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Both the Starlink and Satellite Connect Europe/AST initiatives map their radio interfaces and mobility behavior to these NTN specifications over time, which should let future 5G devices with NTN support hand over natively between cell towers and satellites without custom stacks.
These two D2D initiatives differ in radio design, spectrum, and integration models with mobile operators which provide the actual end point connections as follows:
Starlink D2D technical details:
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Starlink’s Direct‑to‑Cell satellites use software‑defined radios and large phased‑array antennas so each LEO satellite behaves like a moving LTE/NR macro cell in space.
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Unlike standard Starlink Ku/Ka user terminals, the D2D layer transmits and receives in allocated terrestrial/mobile bands (roughly 800–2000 MHz) to talk directly to 3GPP LTE/NR chipsets in unmodified handsets, using TDD LTE initially.
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The payload compensates for fast LEO motion (~550 km altitude, ~7.5 km/s) with Doppler pre‑correction and timing advance logic in the satellite SDR so that ordinary UE modems still see acceptable frequency and timing error.
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Onboard beamforming and beam‑hopping allow very narrow spot beams and dynamic power control, which is critical to protect terrestrial networks sharing IMT spectrum and to deliver enough link budget for small handset antennas at long slant ranges.
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Backhaul from the D2D layer uses Starlink’s existing Ku/Ka links and optical inter‑satellite links into the ground segment, so D2D traffic can be routed either to the MNO’s core via gateways or across the Starlink mesh to another region.
Service model and 3GPP spec alignment:
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Starlink positions Direct‑to‑Cell as a “fill‑in” layer: SMS/low‑rate data first, then higher‑rate NR‑NTN services as 3GPP Release 17+ NTN features become available in commercial chipsets.
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The network integrates at the EPC/5GC interface so MNOs can advertise satellite coverage as just another PLMN/RA, letting devices roam seamlessly between terrestrial eNB/gNBs and the Starlink NTN cells, subject to roaming and spectrum agreements.
Satellite Connect Europe D2D technology:
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Satellite Connect Europe is a wholesale platform that exposes AST SpaceMobile’s LEO D2D satellite RAN to European MNOs, with ground stations in multiple EU markets providing regional gateways, traffic anchoring, and regulatory control within European jurisdiction.
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AST’s constellation uses very large phased arrays in LEO to form direct 4G/5G broadband links to standard smartphones, targeting multi‑Mbps throughput per device over IMT and MSS spectrum, again without any handset hardware or software changes.
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The ground segment is designed so that radio resource control, data handling, lawful intercept, and policy enforcement for European traffic all sit under EU‑based operational control, which is a key differentiator versus non‑European satellite operators.
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Integration work with operators such as Telefónica and Orange focuses on core‑network interconnect, mobility management between terrestrial 4G/5G sites and satellite cells, and using D2D mainly for rural coverage and resilience in outages or disasters.
Comparison — Starlink vs Satellite Connect Europe:
References:
https://www.3gpp.org/technologies/ntn-overview
https://itbrief.co.uk/story/satellite-connect-europe-seals-five-mno-trial-deals
Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTNs): market, specifications & standards in 3GPP and ITU-R
ITU-R recommendation IMT-2020-SAT.SPECS from ITU-R WP 5B to be based on 3GPP 5G NR-NTN and IoT-NTN (from Release 17 & 18)
Starlink doubles subscriber base; expands to to 42 new countries, territories & markets
Elon Musk: Starlink could become a global mobile carrier; 2 year timeframe for new smartphones
Amazon Leo (formerly Project Kuiper) unveils satellite broadband for enterprises; Competitive analysis with Starlink
Blue Origin announces TeraWave – satellite internet rival for Starlink and Amazon Leo
From LPWAN to Hybrid Networks: Satellite and NTN as Enablers of Enterprise IoT – Part 2
Keysight Technologies Demonstrates 3GPP Rel-19 NR-NTN Connectivity in Band n252
Telecoms.com’s survey: 5G NTNs to highlight service reliability and network redundancy
China ITU filing to put ~200K satellites in low earth orbit while FCC authorizes 7.5K additional Starlink LEO satellites
NBN selects Amazon Project Kuiper over Starlink for LEO satellite internet service in Australia
GEO satellite internet from HughesNet and Viasat can’t compete with LEO Starlink in speed or latency
Analysis: SpaceX FCC filing to launch up to 1M LEO satellites for solar powered AI data centers in space
SpaceX has applied to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for permission to launch up to 1 million LEO satellites for a new solar-powered AI data center system in space. The private company, 40% owned by Elon Musk, envisions an orbital data center system with “unprecedented computing capacity” needed to run large-scale AI inference and applications for billions of users, according to SpaceX’s filing entered late on Friday.
Credit: Blueee/Alamy Stock Photo
The proposed new satellites would operate in “narrow orbital shells” of up to 50 kilometers each. The satellites would operate at altitudes of between 500 kilometers and 2,000 kilometers, and 30 degrees, and “sun-synchronous orbit inclinations” to capture power from the sun. The system is designed to be interconnected via optical links with existing Starlink broadband satellites, which would transmit data traffic back to ground Earth stations.
“Fortunately, the development of fully reusable launch vehicles like Starship that can deploy millions of tons of mass per year to orbit when launching at rate, means on-orbit processing capacity can reach unprecedented scale and speed compared to terrestrial buildouts, with significantly reduced environmental impact,” SpaceX said.
- Energy Density & Sustainability: By tapping into “near-constant solar power,” SpaceX aims to utilize a fraction of the Sun’s output—noting that even a millionth of its energy exceeds current civilizational demand by four orders of magnitude.
- Thermal Management: To address the cooling requirements of high-density AI clusters, these satellites will utilize radiative heat dissipation, eliminating the water-intensive cooling loops required by terrestrial facilities.
- Opex & Scalability: The financial viability of this orbital layer is tethered to the Starship launch platform. SpaceX anticipates that the radical reduction in $/kg launch costs provided by a fully reusable heavy-lift vehicle will enable rapid scaling and ensure that, within years, the lowest LCOA (Levelized Cost of AI) will be achieved in orbit.
- Vacuum-Speed Data Transmission: In a vacuum, light propagates roughly 50% faster than through terrestrial fiber optic cables. By utilizing Starlink’s optical inter-satellite links (OISLs)—a “petabit” laser mesh—data can bypass terrestrial bottlenecks and subsea cables. This potentially reduces intercontinental latency for AI inference to under 50ms, surpassing many long-haul terrestrial routes.
- Edge-Native Processing & Data Gravity: Current workflows require downlinking massive raw datasets (e.g., Synthetic Aperture Radar imagery) for terrestrial processing, a process that can take hours. Shifting to orbital edge computing allows for “in-situ” AI inference, processing data onboard to deliver actionable insights in minutes rather than hours. This “Space Cloud” architecture eliminates the need to route raw data back to the Earth’s internet backbone, reducing data transmission volumes by up to 90%.
- LEO Proximity vs. Terrestrial Hops: While terrestrial fiber remains the “gold standard” for short-range latency (typically 1–10ms), it is often hindered by inefficient routing and multiple hops. SpaceX’s LEO constellation, operating at altitudes between 340km and 614km, currently delivers median peak-hour latencies of ~26ms in the US. Future orbital configurations may feature clusters at varying 50km intervals to optimize for specific workload and latency tiers.
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The SpaceX FCC filing on Friday follows an exclusive report by Reuters that Elon Musk is considering merging SpaceX with his xAI (Grok chatbot) company ahead of an IPO later this year. Under the proposed merger, shares of xAI would be exchanged for shares in SpaceX. Two entities have been set up in Nevada to facilitate the transaction, Reuters said. Musk also runs electric automaker Tesla, tunnel company The Boring Co. and neurotechnology company Neuralink.
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References:
Google’s Project Suncatcher: a moonshot project to power ML/AI compute from space
Blue Origin announces TeraWave – satellite internet rival for Starlink and Amazon Leo
China ITU filing to put ~200K satellites in low earth orbit while FCC authorizes 7.5K additional Starlink LEO satellites
Amazon Leo (formerly Project Kuiper) unveils satellite broadband for enterprises; Competitive analysis with Starlink
Telecoms.com’s survey: 5G NTNs to highlight service reliability and network redundancy
Huge significance of EchoStar’s AWS-4 spectrum sale to SpaceX
U.S. BEAD overhaul to benefit Starlink/SpaceX at the expense of fiber broadband providers
Telstra selects SpaceX’s Starlink to bring Satellite-to-Mobile text messaging to its customers in Australia
SpaceX launches first set of Starlink satellites with direct-to-cell capabilities
AST SpaceMobile to deliver U.S. nationwide LEO satellite services in 2026
GEO satellite internet from HughesNet and Viasat can’t compete with LEO Starlink in speed or latency
How will fiber and equipment vendors meet the increased demand for fiber optics in 2026 due to AI data center buildouts?
Subsea cable systems: the new high-capacity, high-resilience backbone of the AI-driven global network
From LPWAN to Hybrid Networks: Satellite and NTN as Enablers of Enterprise IoT – Part 2
By Afnan Khan (ML Engineer) and Mehsam Bin Tahir (Data Engineer)
Introduction:
This is the second of two articles on the impact of the Internet of Things (IoT) on the UK Telecom industry. The first is at
Enterprise IoT and the Transformation of UK Telecom Business Models – Part 1
Executive Summary:
Early Internet of Things (IoT) deployments relied heavily on low power wide area networks (LPWANs) to deliver low-cost connectivity for distributed devices. While these technologies enabled initial IoT adoption, they struggled to deliver sustainable commercial returns for telecom operators. In response, attention has shifted towards hybrid terrestrial–satellite connectivity models that integrate Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) directly into mobile network architectures. In 2026, satellite connectivity is increasingly positioned not as a universal coverage solution but as a resilience and continuity layer for enterprise IoT services (Ofcom, 2025).
The Commercial Limits of LPWAN-Based IoT:
LPWAN technologies enabled low-cost connectivity for specific IoT use cases but were typically deployed outside mobile core architectures. This limited their ability to support quality of service guarantees, enterprise-grade security and integrated billing models. As a result, LPWAN deployments often remained fragmented and failed to scale into durable enterprise business models, restricting their long-term commercial value for telecom operators (Ofcom, 2025).
Satellite and NTN as Integrated Mobile Extensions:
In contrast, satellite and NTN connectivity extends existing mobile networks rather than operating as a parallel IoT layer. When non-terrestrial connectivity is integrated into 5G core infrastructure, telecom operators are able to deliver managed IoT services with consistent security, performance and billing models across both terrestrial and remote environments. This architectural shift allows satellite connectivity to be packaged as part of a unified enterprise service rather than sold as a standalone or niche connectivity product (3GPP, 2023). Figure 1 illustrates this hybrid terrestrial–satellite model, showing how satellite connectivity functions as an extension of mobile networks to support continuous IoT services across urban, rural and remote environments.
Figure 1: Hybrid terrestrial–satellite connectivity supporting continuous IoT services across urban, rural and remote environments.
Industrial Use Cases and Hybrid Connectivity
In sectors such as offshore energy, agriculture, logistics and remote infrastructure monitoring, IoT deployments prioritise coverage continuity and service resilience over peak data throughput. Hybrid terrestrial–satellite connectivity enables operators to offer coverage guarantees and service level agreements that LPWAN-based models could not reliably support. In 2026, Virgin Media O2 launched satellite-enabled services aimed at supporting rural connectivity and improving resilience for IoT-dependent applications, reflecting a broader operator strategy to monetise non-terrestrial coverage where reliability is a core requirement (Real Wireless, 2025).
The commercial implications of this transition are further illustrated in Figure 2, which contrasts siloed LPWAN deployments with integrated mobile and satellite IoT services delivered through a unified network core.
Figure 2: Transition from siloed LPWAN deployments to integrated mobile and satellite IoT services delivered through a unified network core.
Satellite Connectivity and Enterprise IoT at Scale:
The UK Space Agency has identified hybrid terrestrial–satellite connectivity as an enabling layer for remote industrial operations, environmental monitoring and agricultural IoT systems. UK-based firms such as Open Cosmos are contributing to this model by integrating Low Earth Orbit satellite connectivity with existing mobile core networks. This approach allows telecom operators to deliver end-to-end managed connectivity for enterprise customers without deploying separate IoT network stacks, converting coverage limitations from a cost burden into chargeable, service-based revenue opportunities (Open Cosmos, 2024; UK Space Agency, 2025).
Conclusion
In 2026, IoT is reshaping the UK telecom sector primarily by enabling new revenue models rather than by driving incremental network expansion. Following the limited commercial success of LPWAN-based IoT strategies, satellite and Non-Terrestrial Network integration is increasingly deployed as an extension of mobile networks to provide coverage continuity and service guarantees for industrial and remote use cases. When integrated into 5G core architectures, satellite connectivity enables telecom operators to monetise resilience and reliability as part of managed enterprise services rather than offering standalone connectivity. Taken together, these developments show that satellite and NTN integration has become a critical enabler of scalable, enterprise-led IoT business models in the UK (Ofcom-2025; 3GPP-2023).
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References:
Ofcom. (2025). Connected Nations UK report.
https://www.ofcom.org.uk
Real Wireless. (2025). Satellite to mobile connectivity and the UK market.
https://real-wireless.com
UK Space Agency. (2025). Connectivity and space infrastructure briefing
https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/uk-space-agency
Open Cosmos. (2024). Satellite solutions for IoT and Earth observation.
https://open-cosmos.com
3GPP. (2023). Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) support in 5G systems.
https://www.3gpp.org/news-events/ntn
Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTNs): market, specifications & standards in 3GPP and ITU-R
Keysight Technologies Demonstrates 3GPP Rel-19 NR-NTN Connectivity in Band n252 (using Samsung modem chip set)
Telecoms.com’s survey: 5G NTNs to highlight service reliability and network redundancy
ITU-R recommendation IMT-2020-SAT.SPECS from ITU-R WP 5B to be based on 3GPP 5G NR-NTN and IoT-NTN (from Release 17 & 18)
China ITU filing to put ~200K satellites in low earth orbit while FCC authorizes 7.5K additional Starlink LEO satellites
Samsung announces 5G NTN modem technology for Exynos chip set; Omnispace and Ligado Networks MoU
China ITU filing to put ~200K satellites in low earth orbit while FCC authorizes 7.5K additional Starlink LEO satellites
- Purpose: The planned systems are intended to provide global broadband connectivity, data relay, and positioning services, directly competing with U.S. efforts like SpaceX’s Starlink network.
- Filing Entities: The primary filings were submitted by the state-backed Institute of Radio Spectrum Utilization and Technological Innovation, along with other commercial and state-owned companies like China Mobile and Shanghai Spacecom.
- Status: These filings are an initial step in a long international regulatory process and serve as a claim to limited spectrum and orbital slots. They do not guarantee all satellites will ultimately be built or launched. The actual deployment will be a gradual process over many years.
- Context: The move is part of an escalating “space race” to dominate the LEO environment. Early filings are crucial for securing priority access to orbital resources and avoiding signal interference. The sheer scale of the Chinese proposal would, if realized, dwarf most other planned constellations.
- Regulations: Under ITU rules, operators must deploy a certain percentage of the satellites within seven years of the initial filing to retain their rights.
- Shanghai Yuanxin (Qianfan), currently China’s most advanced LEO satellite operator, has submitted a regulatory request for an additional 1,296 satellites.
- Telecommunications giant China Mobile is planning two separate constellations totaling 2,664 satellites.
- ChinaSat, the established state-owned satellite provider, is focusing on a 24-satellite medium-Earth orbit (MEO) system.
- GalaxySpace, a private satellite manufacturer based in Beijing, has applied for 187 satellites, and China Telecom has applied for 12.
Image Credit: Klaus Ohlenschlaeger/Alamy Stock Photo
“This gives SpaceX what they need for the next couple of years of operation. They’re launching a bit over 3,000 satellites a year, so 7,500 satellites being authorized is potentially enough for SpaceX to do what they want to do until late 2027,” said Tim Farrar, satellite analyst and president at TMF Associates.
SpaceX has plans for a larger D2D satellite constellation that would use the AWS-4 and H-block spectrum it is acquiring from EchoStar. It is awaiting FCC approval for the US$17 billion deal, but the spectrum is not expected to be transferred until the end of November 2027.
The FCC noted that the changes will allow the Starlink system to serve more customers and deliver “gigabit speed service.” Along with permission for another tranche of satellites, the FCC has set new parameters for frequency use and lower orbit altitudes. The modified authorizations will also apply to new satellites to be launched.
Starlink’s LEO satellite network competitors are Amazon Leo, OneWeb and AST Space Mobile.
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References:
U.S. BEAD overhaul to benefit Starlink/SpaceX at the expense of fiber broadband providers
Huge significance of EchoStar’s AWS-4 spectrum sale to SpaceX
Telstra selects SpaceX’s Starlink to bring Satellite-to-Mobile text messaging to its customers in Australia
SpaceX launches first set of Starlink satellites with direct-to-cell capabilities
SpaceX has majority of all satellites in orbit; Starlink achieves cash-flow breakeven
Amazon Leo (formerly Project Kuiper) unveils satellite broadband for enterprises; Competitive analysis with Starlink
NBN selects Amazon Project Kuiper over Starlink for LEO satellite internet service in Australia
GEO satellite internet from HughesNet and Viasat can’t compete with LEO Starlink in speed or latency
Amazon launches first Project Kuiper satellites in direct competition with SpaceX/Starlink
Vodafone and Amazon’s Project Kuiper to extend 4G/5G in Africa and Europe
Keysight Technologies Demonstrates 3GPP Rel-19 NR-NTN Connectivity in Band n252
Keysight Technologies, Inc. has demonstrated the first end-to-end New Radio Non-Terrestrial Network (NR-NTN) connection in 3GPP band n252 under Release 19 specifications, achieved in collaboration with Samsung Electronics using Samsung’s next-generation commercial NR modem chipset (part number not stated). The live trial, conducted at CES 2026 in Las Vegas, validated satellite-to-satellite (SAT-to-SAT) mobility and cross-vendor interoperability, establishing a key milestone for direct-to-cell (D2C) satellite communications and NTN commercialization.
The successful validation of band n252 marks the first public confirmation of this spectrum band in an operational NTN system. Band n252 is expected to be a foundational component for upcoming low Earth orbit (LEO) constellations targeting global broadband and IoT coverage. This result demonstrates tangible progress toward large-scale NTN integration supporting ubiquitous, standards-based connectivity for consumers, connected vehicles, IoT devices, and critical communications.
Together with earlier demonstrations in bands n255 and n256, Keysight and Samsung have now validated all major NR-NTN FR1 frequency bands end-to-end. This consolidation enables ecosystem participants—including modem vendors, satellite network operators, and device manufacturers—to analyze cross-band mobility, inter-satellite handovers, and radio performance under consistent, controlled NTN emulation conditions.
The demonstration leveraged Keysight’s NTN Network Emulator Solutions to replicate multi-orbit LEO scenarios, emulate SAT-to-SAT mobility, and execute complete end-to-end routing while supporting live user traffic over the NTN link. When paired with Samsung’s chipset, the setup verified standards compliance, user throughput performance, and multi-vendor interoperability, providing a high-fidelity validation environment that accelerates system testing and time-to-market for NR-NTN deployments targeted for global scaling in 2026.
This integration underscores the readiness of 3GPP Release 19-compliant NTN technologies to transition from proof-of-concept trials to operational field testing, supporting the broader industry goal of realizing seamless terrestrial–non-terrestrial 5G networks within the Rel-19 framework and paving the way for future 6G NTN evolution.
For network operators, device OEMs, and satellite providers, this consolidation of NTN FR1 coverage provides a reference environment to evaluate cross‑band handovers, inter‑satellite mobility, and multi‑vendor interoperability before field deployment. By moving live NR‑NTN testing with commercial‑grade silicon into an emulated LEO constellation environment, the solution is positioned to reduce integration risk, compress trial timelines, and accelerate commercialization of direct‑to‑cell NTN services anticipated to scale from 2026.
Peng Cao, Vice President and General Manager of Keysight’s Wireless Test Group, Keysight, said:
“Together with Samsung’s System LSI Business, we are demonstrating the live NTN connection in 3GPP band n252 using commercial-grade modem silicon with true SAT-to-SAT mobility. With n252, n255, and n256 now validated across NTN, the ecosystem is clearly accelerating toward bringing direct-to-cell satellite connectivity to mass-market devices. Keysight’s NTN emulation environment enables chipset and device makers a controlled way to prove multi-satellite mobility, interoperability, and user-level performance, helping the industry move from concept to commercialization.”
Resources:
About Keysight Technologies:
At Keysight (NYSE: KEYS), we inspire and empower innovators to bring world-changing technologies to life. As an S&P 500 company, we’re delivering market-leading design, emulation, and test solutions to help engineers develop and deploy faster, with less risk, throughout the entire product life cycle. We’re a global innovation partner enabling customers in communications, industrial automation, aerospace and defense, automotive, semiconductor, and general electronics markets to accelerate innovation to connect and secure the world. Learn more at Keysight Newsroom and www.keysight.com.
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References:
https://www.telecoms.com/satellite/samsung-and-keysight-show-off-continuous-ntn-connectivity
Starlink doubles subscriber base; expands to to 42 new countries, territories & markets
Starlink, the satellite internet service by SpaceX, has nearly doubled its internet subscriber base in 2025 to over 9 million global customers. This rapid expansion from approximately 4.6 million subscribers at the end of 2024 has been driven by new service launches in 42 countries and territories, new subscription options, and the company’s focus on bridging the digital divide in remote and underserved areas.
- Total Subscribers: As of December 2025, Starlink connects over 9 million active customers across 155 countries.
- Growth Rate: The company added its most recent million users in just under seven weeks, a record pace of over 20,000 new users daily. Overall internet traffic from users more than doubled in 2025.
- Geographic Expansion: Starlink’s growth is heavily fueled by international markets where traditional broadband is limited. The U.S. subscriber base alone reached over 2 million by mid-2025.
- Infrastructure: SpaceX has focused heavily on scaling its network capacity, operating more than 9,000 active satellites in orbit and investing heavily in ground infrastructure.
Starlink’s Ground Network:
Starlink has also deployed the largest satellite ground network with more than 100 gateway sites in the United States alone – comprising a total of over 1,500 antennas – are strategically placed to deliver the lowest possible latency, especially for those who live in rural and remote areas.
Starlink produces these gateway antennas at our factory in Redmond, Washington where they rapidly scaled production to match satellite production and launch rate.
Network Resilience:
With more than 7,800 satellites in orbit, Starlink customers always have multiple satellites in view, as well as multiple gateway sites and internet points-of-presence locations (PoPs). As a result, Starlink customers benefit from continuous service even when terrestrial broadband is suffering from fiber cuts, subsea cable damage, and power outages that can deny service to millions of individuals for days.
Additionally, each Starlink satellite is equipped with cutting-edge optical links that ensure they can relay hundreds of gigabits of traffic directly with each other, no matter what happens on the ground. This laser network enables Starlink satellites to consistently and reliably deliver data around the world and route traffic around any ground conditions that affect terrestrial service at speeds that are physically impossible on Earth.
Starlink’s Latency:
To measure Starlink’s latency, the company collects anonymized measurements from millions of Starlink routers every 15 seconds. In the U.S., Starlink routers perform hundreds of thousands of speed test measurements and hundreds of billions of latency measurements every day. This high-frequency automated measurement assures consistent data quality, with minimal sampling bias, interference from Wi-Fi conditions, or bottlenecks from third-party hardware.
As of June 2025, Starlink is delivering median peak-hour latency of 25.7 milliseconds (ms) across all customers in the United States. In the US, fewer than one percent of measurements exceed 55 ms, significantly better than even some terrestrial operators.
- Addressing the Digital Divide: Starlink has positioned itself as a critical solution for rural and remote communities, offering high-speed, low-latency internet where fiber or cable is unfeasible.
- New Services: The company is expanding beyond individual households to include services for airlines, maritime operators, and businesses. There are also plans for a direct-to-cell service in partnership with mobile carriers like T-Mobile.
- Next-Generation Satellites: To manage the growing user base and increasing congestion, SpaceX plans to launch its larger, next-generation V3 satellites in 2026, which are designed to offer gigabit-class connectivity and dramatically increase network capacity.
- IPO Considerations: Starlink’s significant growth and role as SpaceX’s primary revenue driver have positioned the parent company for a potential initial public offering (IPO) in 2026.
Competition:
Starlink’s main LEO competitors are Amazon Leo (Project Kuiper) and OneWeb (Eutelsat), aiming for similar high-speed, low-latency service, while established providers Hughesnet and Viasat (mostly GEO) offer more traditional, affordable satellite options but with higher lag, though they’re adapting. Starlink leads in consumer availability and speed currently, but Amazon and OneWeb are rapidly scaling to challenge its dominance with LEO constellations, offering faster speeds and lower latency than older satellite tech.
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References:
https://starlink.com/updates/network-update
Elon Musk: Starlink could become a global mobile carrier; 2 year timeframe for new smartphones
Amazon Leo (formerly Project Kuiper) unveils satellite broadband for enterprises; Competitive analysis with Starlink
NBN selects Amazon Project Kuiper over Starlink for LEO satellite internet service in Australia
GEO satellite internet from HughesNet and Viasat can’t compete with LEO Starlink in speed or latency
KDDI unveils AU Starlink direct-to-cell satellite service
Telstra selects SpaceX’s Starlink to bring Satellite-to-Mobile text messaging to its customers in Australia
U.S. BEAD overhaul to benefit Starlink/SpaceX at the expense of fiber broadband providers
One NZ launches commercial Satellite TXT service using Starlink LEO satellites
Reliance Jio vs Starlink: administrative process or auction for satellite broadband services in India?
FCC: More competition for Starlink; freeing up spectrum for satellite broadband service
SpaceX launches first set of Starlink satellites with direct-to-cell capabilities
Starlink Direct to Cell service (via Entel) is coming to Chile and Peru be end of 2024
